Anat Cell Biol.  2019 Sep;52(3):226-235. 10.5115/acb.18.213.

From papyrus leaves to bioprinting and virtual reality: history and innovation in anatomy

• Bisht B
• Hope A
• Paul MK

• KMID: 2459536
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.5115/acb.18.213

Abstract

The human quest to master the anatomy and physiology of living systems started as early as 1600 BC, with documents from the Greeks, Indians, and Romans presenting the earliest systematic studies and advances. Following the fall of the Roman Empire, the progress slowed until the Renaissance renewed scientific interest in anatomy and physiology, ushering in an era of spectacular advances. Alongside the discoveries of modern science, innovations in media such as printing, photography and color reproduction, improved the accuracy of communicating science. Techniques for noninvasively viewing the human body, such as magnetic resonance imaging, opened up new ways of exploring and understanding anatomy, physiology, and disease pathogenesis. Advances in three-dimensional (3D)-technologies, including computer graphics and animation are directly linked to many advances in medicine and surgery. Anatomy education has come a long way from papyrus leaf inscriptions to computerized 3D modeling, holographic representation, and virtual reality-based software. The future presents unlimited options for studying and understanding anatomy as Google glasses, bioprinting, virtual reality, and allied technologies transform the world into a classroom. This review summarizes the journey of mankind to master anatomy and physiology.

Keyword

History of anatomy; Visible human project; Bioprinting; 3D technologies; Virtual reality

MeSH Terms

Bioprinting*
Computer Graphics
Education
Eyeglasses
Glass
Human Body
Humans
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Photography
Physiology
Reproduction
Roman World

Figure

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  Fig. 1 Edwin Smith Papyrus. Recto Columns 8 and 9. Picture from the archives of U.S. National Library of Medicine, https://ceb.nlm.nih.gov/projects/ttp/.

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  Fig. 2 Drawing (c. 1507) by Leonardo da Vinci showing the principal organs, vasculature, and the female urinogenital system. Source: http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.html{{pd}}Category:LeonardodaVinci.

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  Fig. 3 An excerpt of Michelangelo's anatomical studies of the muscular system. Source: http://classicalpulse.blogspot.com/2013/06/michelangeloanatomy-studies.html.

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  Fig. 4 Vesalius drew accurate illustrations, with. Figures drawn in the artistic style of Renaissance realism. This figure of the musculoskeletal system stands in controposto. De Humani Corporis Fabrica. Basel, 1543. Woodcut. Picture from the archives of U.S. National Library of Medicine, https://www.nlm.nih.gov/dreamanatomy/da_g_I-B-1-07.html.

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  Fig. 5 A typical computed tomography scan through the coronal plane, showing the details of the cavity and parts of the abdomen. Right bottom: as seen through the Axial plane. A great improvement from century old paintings. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scrollable_highresolution_computed_tomography_images_of_a_normal_thorax&oldid=255941168.

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  Fig. 6 This is from the thorax subset of the VHP project. (A) Photograph showing a section through Visible Human Male: thorax, including heart, lungs, spinal column, major vessels, musculature. (B) Computed tomography scan image of the same plane of the thorax. Source: from the archives of National Library of Medicine, https://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/visible_gallery.html.

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  Fig. 7 Patient specific successive computed tomography (CT) scans are deconvoluted to make a 3D model. (A) Successive CT scans are placed back to back to create depth in an artistic way. (B–H) CT scan deconvolution. The 3D model created is rotated and shown from different angels and showing different layers, complexity of organ system. Multi-material FDM 3D printing can elucidate the skin and underlying organs. CT scan database: Lung Image Database Consortium image collection (LIDC).

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  Fig. 8 3D printed model showing the skeletal structure (white) and the musculature (transparent). The template was made using a computed tomography bone scan and 3D hand scan and printed by dual extruder printing. Model organs can also be printed for students and practitioners.

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  Fig. 9 Jaw bone defect corrected with a bone mimic transplant made 3D printed from a computed tomography scan (shown by arrows).

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  Fig. 10 Bone bio-engineering. Knee joint replacement or knee arthroplasty is commonly used to treat severe arthritis pain or injury. The prosthetic is 3D printed from a model based on the patient's computed tomography (CT) scan by metal laser sintering, CAD files: grab CAD. Alternatively, 3D printed bone scaffolds can be seeded with osteogenic cells derived from bone marrow stem cells or iPSCs and allowed to integrate normally. CT Database: Lung Image Database Consortium image collection.

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